what was one of the methods the inca leaders used to help maintain control of those they conquered?
The Inca civilization flourished in ancient Peru betwixt c. 1400 and 1533 CE, and their empire eventually extended across western South America from Quito in the north to Santiago in the south. It is the largest empire ever seen in the Americas and the largest in the globe at that time.
Undaunted past the often harsh Andean surround, the Incas conquered people and exploited landscapes in such various settings as plains, mountains, deserts, and tropical jungle. Famed for their unique fine art and architecture, they constructed finely-built and imposing buildings wherever they conquered, and their spectacular adaptation of natural landscapes with terracing, highways, and mountaintop settlements continues to print modernistic visitors at such world-famous sites as Machu Picchu.
Historical Overview
Equally with other aboriginal Americas cultures, the historical origins of the Incas are difficult to disentangle from the founding myths they themselves created. Co-ordinate to legend, in the beginning, the creator god Viracocha came out of the Pacific Body of water, and when he arrived at Lake Titicaca, he created the sun and all ethnic groups. These first people were buried by the god and only later did they emerge from springs and rocks (sacred pacarinas) dorsum into the world. The Incas, specifically, were brought into beingness at Tiwanaku (Tiahuanaco) from the sun god Inti; hence, they regarded themselves as the chosen few, the 'Children of the Sun', and the Inca ruler was Inti's representative and embodiment on world. In another version of the cosmos myth, the first Incas came from a sacred cave known as Tampu T'oqo or 'The House of Windows', which was located at Pacariqtambo, the 'Inn of Dawn', southward of Cuzco. The first pair of humans were Manco Capac (or Manqo Qhapaq) and his sister (also his wife) Mama Oqllu (or Ocllo). Three more brother-sis siblings were born, and the group set off together to constitute their civilization. Defeating the Chanca people with the aid of stone warriors (pururaucas), the first Incas finally settled in the Valley of Cuzco and Manco Capac, throwing a golden rod into the footing, established what would get the Inca capital, Cuzco.
twoscore,000 Incas governed a territory with 10 million subjects speaking over xxx different languages.
More concrete archaeological evidence has revealed that the first settlements in the Cuzco Valley really appointment to 4500 BCE when hunter-gather communities occupied the area. Nonetheless, Cuzco only became a significant eye old at the kickoff of the Late Intermediate Period (grand-1400 CE). A procedure of regional unification began from the late 14th century CE, and from the early 15th century CE, with the arrival of the first slap-up Inca leader Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui ('Reverser of the World') and the defeat of the Chanca in 1438 CE, the Incas began to expand in search of plunder and production resources, first to the south and so in all directions. They somewhen built an empire which stretched beyond the Andes, conquering such peoples as the Lupaka, Colla, Chimor, and Wanka civilizations along the way. Once established, a nationwide system of taxation and assistants was instigated which consolidated the power of Cuzco.
The rising of the Inca Empire was spectacularly quick. First, all speakers of the Inca language Quechua (or Runasimi) were given privileged status, and this noble class and so dominated all the important roles within the empire. Thupa Inca Yupanqui (also known every bit Topa Inca Yupanqui), Pachacuti'southward successor from 1471 CE, is credited with having expanded the empire by a massive 4,000 km (2,500 miles). The Incas themselves chosen their empire Tawantinsuyo (or Tahuantinsuyu) pregnant 'Country of the 4 Quarters' or 'The Four Parts Together'. Cuzco was considered the bellybutton of the world, and radiating out were highways and sacred sighting lines (ceques) to each quarter: Chinchaysuyu (north), Antisuyu (east), Collasuyu (due south), and Cuntisuyu (west). Spreading across ancient Ecuador, Peru, northern Republic of chile, Bolivia, upland Argentina, and southern Colombia and stretching 5,500 km (3,400 miles) north to south, 40,000 Incas governed a huge territory with some 10 one thousand thousand subjects speaking over xxx different languages.
Inca Empire - Expansion and Roads
Government & Administration
The Incas kept lists of their kings (Sapa Inca) so that we know of such names as Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui (reign c. 1438-63 CE), Thupa Inca Yupanqui (reign c. 1471-93 CE), and Wayna Qhapaq (the last pre-Hispanic ruler, reign c. 1493-1525 CE). It is possible that ii kings ruled at the same time and that queens may have had some significant powers, but the Castilian records are not clear on both points. The Sapa Inca was an accented ruler, and he lived a life of keen opulence. Drinking from gold and silverish cups, wearing silverish shoes, and living in a palace furnished with the finest textiles, he was pampered to the extreme. He was even looked after following his death, as the Inca mummified their rulers. Stored in the Coricancha temple in Cuzco, the mummies (mallquis) were, in elaborate ceremonies, regularly brought outside wearing their finest regalia, given offerings of food and drink, and 'consulted' for their opinion on pressing state diplomacy.
Inca rule was, much like their compages, based on compartmentalised and interlocking units. At the pinnacle was the ruler and ten kindred groups of nobles chosen panaqa. Next in line came ten more kindred groups, more distantly related to the male monarch so, a third group of nobles non of Inca blood but made Incas as a privilege. At the bottom of the country appliance were locally recruited administrators who oversaw settlements and the smallest Andean population unit the ayllu, which was a collection of households, typically of related families who worked an area of state, lived together and provided mutual support in times of demand. Each ayllu was governed by a small number of nobles or kurakas, a role which could include women.
Local administrators reported to over 80 regional-level administrators who, in turn, reported to a governor responsible for each quarter of the empire. The four governors reported to the supreme Inca ruler in Cuzco. To ensure loyalty, the heirs of local rulers were as well kept as well-kept prisoners at the Inca capital. The most of import political, religious, and military roles within the empire were, and then, kept in the easily of the Inca elite, called by the Spanish the orejones or 'big ears' because they wore large earspools to indicate their status. To better ensure the control of this elite over their subjects, garrisons dotted the empire, and entirely new authoritative centres were built, notably at Tambo Colorado, Huánuco Pampa and Hatun Xauxa.
For revenue enhancement purposes, censuses were taken and populations divided up into groups based on multiples of ten (Inca mathematics was almost identical to the system we use today). Equally at that place was no currency in the Inca earth, taxes were paid in kind - usually foodstuffs, precious metals, textiles, exotic feathers, dyes, and spondylus shell - but as well in labourers who could exist shifted about the empire to exist used where they were most needed, known as mit'a service. Agronomical land and herds were divided into three parts: production for the state religion and the gods, for the Inca ruler, and for the farmer's own use. Local communities were too expected to help build and maintain such imperial projects every bit the road arrangement which stretched across the empire. To keep track of all these statistics, the Inca used the quipu, a sophisticated assembly of knotted cords which was also highly transportable and could record decimals upwards to 10,000.
Khipu
Although the Incas imposed their organized religion and administration on conquered peoples, extracted tribute, and fifty-fifty moved loyal populations (mitmaqs) to better integrate new territories into the empire, Inca culture also brought certain benefits such as food redistribution in times of environmental disaster, amend storage facilities for foodstuffs, work via state-sponsored projects, land-sponsored religious feasts, roads, irrigation systems, terrace farms, military assistance, and luxury appurtenances, especially art objects enjoyed by the local elite.
Well-nigh splendid were the temples congenital in honour of Inti & Mama Kilya - the former was lined with 700 ii kg sheets of beaten gold.
Cuzco
The Inca majuscule of Cuzco (from qosqo, pregnant 'dried-upwardly lake bed' or possibly derived from cozco, a particular stone mark in the city) was the religious and administrative centre of the empire and had a population of up to 150,000 at its elevation. Dominated past the sacred gold-covered and emerald-studded Coricancha circuitous (or Temple of the Sun), its greatest buildings were credited to Pachacuti. Most splendid were the temples built in honour of Inti and Mama Kilya - the former was lined with 700 2 kg sheets of beaten gold, the latter with silver. The whole upper-case letter was laid out in the form of a puma (although some scholars dispute this and take the description metaphorically) with the imperial metropolis of Pumachupan forming the tail and the temple complex of Sacsayhuaman (or Saqsawaman) forming the caput. Incorporating vast plazas, parklands, shrines, fountains, and canals, the splendour of Inca Cuzco now, unfortunately, survives only in the eye-witness accounts of the get-go Europeans who marvelled at its architecture and riches.
Inca Religion
The Inca had great reverence for two earlier civilizations who had occupied much the same territory - the Wari and Tiwanaku. As we have seen, the sites of Tiwanaku and Lake Titicaca played an important part in Inca creation myths and so were especially revered. Inca rulers made regular pilgrimages to Tiwanaku and the islands of the lake, where ii shrines were built to Inti the Sun god and supreme Inca deity, and the moon goddess Mama Kilya. Also in the Coricancha complex at Cuzco, these deities were represented by big precious metal artworks which were attended and worshipped past priests and priestesses led by the 2d nearly important person afterward the male monarch: the Loftier Priest of the Sun (Willaq Umu). Thus, the religion of the Inca was preoccupied with controlling the natural globe and avoiding such disasters every bit convulsion, floods, and drought, which inevitably brought virtually the natural cycle of change, the turning over of time involving death and renewal which the Inca chosen pachakuti.
Sacred sites were also established, ofttimes taking advantage of prominent natural features such as mountain tops, caves, and springs. These huacas could be used to take astronomical observations at specific times of the yr. Religious ceremonies took place according to the astronomical calendar, especially the movements of the sun, moon, and Milky Way (Mayu). Processions and ceremonies could also be connected to agriculture, peculiarly the planting and harvesting seasons. Along with Titicaca'due south Island of the Dominicus, the most sacred Inca site was Pachacamac, a temple city congenital in award of the god with the aforementioned name, who created humans, plants, and was responsible for earthquakes. A large wooden statue of the god, considered an oracle, brought pilgrims from beyond the Andes to worship at Pachacamac. Shamans were another important part of Inca organized religion and were active in every settlement. Cuzco had 475, the most important being the yacarca, the personal advisor to the ruler.
Inca religious rituals too involved antecedent worship as seen through the practice of mummification and making offerings to the gods of nutrient, potable, and precious materials. Sacrifices - both animals and humans, including children - were besides fabricated to pacify and honour the gods and ensure the good health of the rex. The pouring of libations, either water or chicha beer, was also an important part of Inca religious ceremonies.
The Incas imposed their religion on local populations by edifice their own temples and sacred sites, and they besides commandeered sacred relics from conquered peoples and held them in Cuzco. Stored in the Coricancha, they were perhaps considered hostages which ensured compliance to the Inca view of the globe.
Inca Road Remainder Station
Inca Compages & Roads
Master stonemasons, the Incas constructed large buildings, walls and fortifications using finely-worked blocks - either regular or polygonal - which fitted together then precisely no mortar was needed. With an emphasis on clean lines, trapezoid shapes, and incorporating natural features into these buildings, they accept easily withstood the powerful earthquakes which frequently striking the region. The distinctive sloping trapezoid form and fine masonry of Inca buildings were, besides their obvious aesthetic value, also used as a recognisable symbol of Inca domination throughout the empire.
One of the most mutual Inca buildings was the ubiquitous 1-room storage warehouse the qollqa. Congenital in stone and well-ventilated, they were either circular and stored maize or square for potatoes and tubers. The kallanka was a very large hall used for community gatherings. More than modest buildings include the kancha - a group of small single-room and rectangular buildings (wasi and masma) with thatched roofs congenital effectually a courtyard enclosed by a high wall. The kancha was a typical architectural characteristic of Inca towns, and the idea was exported to conquered regions. Terracing to maximise land area for agriculture (specially for maize) was another Inca practice, which they exported wherever they went. These terraces oft included canals, equally the Incas were expert at diverting water, carrying it across not bad distances, channelling it hush-hush, and creating spectacular outlets and fountains.
Appurtenances were transported across the empire along purpose-built roads using llamas and porters (there were no wheeled vehicles). The Inca road network covered over twoscore,000 km and as well as assuasive for the easy movement of armies, administrators, and trade goods, it was too a very powerful visual symbol of Inca authorization over their empire. The roads had residual stations along their manner, and there was too a relay arrangement of runners (chasquis) who carried messages upwards to 240 km in a unmarried 24-hour interval from one settlement to some other.
Inca Art
Although influenced by the fine art and techniques of the Chimu civilization, the Incas did create their own distinctive mode which was an instantly recognisable symbol of imperial authorization across the empire. Inca art is best seen in highly polished metalwork (in gold - considered the sweat of the sun, silvery - considered the tears of the moon, and copper), ceramics, and textiles, with the last being considered the nigh prestigious by the Incas themselves. Designs often use geometrical shapes, are technically accomplished, and standardized. The checkerboard stands out as a very popular blueprint. I of the reasons for repeated designs was that pottery and textiles were frequently produced for the country equally a tax, and then artworks were representative of specific communities and their cultural heritage. Just as today coins and stamps reflect a nation's history, so, too, Andean artwork offered recognisable motifs which either represented the specific communities making them or the imposed designs of the ruling Inca class ordering them.
Inca Ruler Atahualpa
Works using precious metals such as discs, jewellery, figures, and everyday objects were made exclusively for Inca nobles, and fifty-fifty some textiles were restricted for their use alone. Goods made using the super-soft vicuña wool were similarly restricted, and merely the Inca ruler could own vicuña herds. Ceramics were for wider employ, and the nigh common shape was the urpu, a bulbous vessel with a long neck and two minor handles low on the pot which was used for storing maize. It is notable that the pottery decoration, textiles, and architectural sculpture of the Incas did non normally include representations of themselves, their rituals, or such mutual Andean images every bit monsters and half-human, half-animal figures.
The Inca produced textiles, ceramics, and metallic sculpture technically superior to any previous Andean civilisation, and this despite strong competition from such masters of metallic work equally the practiced craftsmen of the Moche civilization. Just as the Inca imposed a political dominance over their conquered subjects, and then, also, with art they imposed standard Inca forms and designs, but they did permit local traditions to maintain their preferred colours and proportions. Gifted artists such as those from Chan Chan or the Titicaca area and women peculiarly skilled at weaving were brought to Cuzco so that they could produce beautiful things for the Inca rulers.
Collapse
The Inca Empire was founded on, and maintained by, force, and the ruling Incas were very oftentimes unpopular with their subjects (particularly in the northern territories), a situation that the Castilian conquerors (conquistadores), led by Francisco Pizarro, would take full advantage of in the center decades of the 16th century CE. The Inca Empire, in fact, had still not reached a stage of consolidated maturity when it faced its greatest challenge. Rebellions were rife, and the Incas were engaged in a war in Ecuador where a 2d Inca capital had been established at Quito. Even more than serious, the Incas were hit by an epidemic of European diseases, such as smallpox, which had spread from central America even faster than the European invaders themselves, and the moving ridge killed a staggering 65-xc% of the population. Such a disease killed Wayna Qhapaq in 1528 CE, and 2 of his sons, Waskar and Atahualpa, battled in a damaging civil state of war for control of the empire but when the European treasure-hunters arrived. It was this combination of factors - a perfect storm of rebellion, disease, and invasion - which brought the downfall of the mighty Inca Empire, the largest and richest ever seen in the Americas.
The Inca linguistic communication Quechua lives on today and is still spoken by some 8 million people. There are also a skillful number of buildings, artefacts, and written accounts which have survived the ravages of conquerors, looters, and time. These remains are proportionally few to the vast riches which have been lost, but they remain indisputable witnesses to the wealth, ingenuity, and loftier cultural achievements of this dandy simply curt-lived civilization.
This article has been reviewed for accuracy, reliability and adherence to academic standards prior to publication.
Source: https://www.worldhistory.org/Inca_Civilization/
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