Why Do Muslims Avoid Figuration in Art? What Elements Are Used in Art Because Figuration Is Avoided?

Avoidance of images of sentient beings in some forms of Islamic art

Aniconism is the avoidance of images of sentient beings in some forms of Islamic art. Islamic aniconism stems in part from the prohibition of idolatry and in part from the belief that the creation of living forms is God's prerogative. Although the Quran does non explicitly prohibit visual representation of whatsoever living being, it uses the word musawwir (maker of forms, artist) as an epithet of God. The corpus of hadith (sayings attributed to the Islamic prophet Muhammad) contains more explicit prohibitions of images of living beings, challenging painters to "breathe life" into their images and threatening them with punishment on the Twenty-four hour period of Judgment.^{[1] [2]} Muslims take interpreted these prohibitions in different ways in different times and places. Religious Islamic fine art has been typically characterized by the absence of figures and extensive use of calligraphic, geometric and abstract floral patterns.

Withal, representations of Muhammad (in some cases, with his face curtained) and other religious figures are plant in some manuscripts from lands to the e of Anatolia, such as Persia and India. These pictures were meant to illustrate the story and not to infringe on the Islamic prohibition of idolatry, just many Muslims regard such images as forbidden.^[i] In secular art of the Muslim world, representations of man and animal forms historically flourished in almost all Islamic cultures, although, partly because of opposing religious sentiments, figures in paintings were often stylized, giving rise to a multifariousness of decorative figural designs. There were episodes of iconoclastic destruction of figurative art, such as the decree by the Umayyad caliph Yazid II in 721 CE ordering the devastation of all representational images in his realm.^{[2] [3]} A number of historians take seen an Islamic influence on the Byzantine iconoclastic move of the 8th century, though others regard this is as a fable that arose in later times in the Byzantine empire.^[4]

Theological views [edit]

The Quran, the Islamic holy book, does not explicitly prohibit the depiction of human figures; information technology just condemns idolatry.^{[v] [half-dozen]} Interdictions of figurative representation are present in the hadith, among a dozen of the hadith recorded during the latter part of the period when they were being written down. Because these hadith are tied to particular events in the life of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, they need to be interpreted in order to be applied in whatever general fashion.

Sunni exegetes of tafsir, from the 9th century onward, increasingly saw in them categorical prohibitions confronting producing and using any representation of living beings. At that place are variations betwixt religious madhhab (schools) and marked differences between different branches of Islam. Aniconism is common amid fundamentalist Sunni sects such equally Salafis and Wahhabis (which are too ofttimes iconoclastic), and less prevalent among liberal movements within Islam. Shia and mystical orders also accept less stringent views on aniconism. On the individual level, whether or non specific Muslims believe in aniconism may depend on how much credence is given to hadith, and how liberal or strict they are in personal practice.

Aniconism in Islam not only deals with the material image, but touches upon mental representations likewise. It is a problematic issue, discussed by early theologians, as to how to draw God, Muhammad and other prophets, and, indeed, if it is permissible at all to exercise so. God is normally represented by immaterial attributes, such as "holy" or "merciful", unremarkably known from His "90-ix beautiful names". Muhammad'due south physical advent, however, is amply described, particularly in the traditions on his life and deeds recorded in the biographies known as Sirah Rasul Allah. Of no less involvement is the validity of sightings of holy personages fabricated during dreams.

Titus Burckhardt sums up the function of aniconism in Islamic aesthetics as follows:

The absence of icons in Islam has non merely a negative simply a positive role. Past excluding all anthropomorphic images, at least within the religious realm, Islamic art aids man to be entirely himself. Instead of projecting his soul outside himself, he can remain in his ontological centre where he is both the viceregent (khalîfa) and slave ('abd) of God. Islamic art as a whole aims at creating an ambient which helps man to realize his primordial dignity; information technology therefore avoids everything that could be an 'idol', even in a relative and conditional manner. Nothing must stand between man and the invisible presence of God. Thus Islamic art creates a void; it eliminates in fact all the turmoil and passionate suggestions of the world, and in their stead creates an order that expresses equilibrium, serenity and peace.^[seven]

In practice [edit]

Religious core [edit]

In practise, the cadre of normative religion in Islam is consistently aniconic. Spaces such as the mosque and objects like the Quran are devoid of figurative images. Other spheres of religion, for example mysticism, popular piety, or private devotion exhibit significant variability in this regard. Aniconism in secular contexts is even more variable and there are many examples of figural representation in secular art throughout history. By and large speaking, aniconism in Islamic societies is restricted in modern times to specific religious contexts. In the past, it was enforced only in some times and places.^[8]

Past [edit]

The representation of living beings in Islamic art is non simply a modern phenomenon and examples are establish from the earliest periods of Islamic history. Frescos and reliefs of humans and animals adorned palaces of the Umayyad era, as on the famous Mshatta Facade now in Berlin.^{[9] [10]} The 'Abbasid Palaces at Samarra as well contained figurative imagery. Ceramics, metalware, and objects in ivory, stone crystal, and other media likewise bore figural imagery in the medieval era.^[11] Figurative miniatures in books occur later in about Islamic countries but somewhat less in Arabic-speaking areas. The human figure is central to the Western farsi miniature and other traditions such equally the Ottoman miniature and Mughal painting.^{[12] [13]} The Persian miniature tradition began when Persian courts were dominated by Sunnis, but connected afterward the Shia Safavid dynasty took power. The Safavid ruler Shah Tahmasp I of Persia began his reign as a keen patron and amateur artist himself, but turned against painting and other forbidden activities after a religious midlife crunch.^[14]

The Pisa Griffin, probably created in the 11th century in Al-Andalus, is the largest Islamic figurative sculpture to survive.

The abstention of idolatry is the main concern of the restrictions on images, and as a result, the traditional class for the religious cult image, the free-standing sculpture, is extremely rare, though examples of freestanding human sculpture do occur in Umayyad Syria and in Seljuk Iran.^[fifteen] The Pisa Griffin, of a mythical beast and designed to spout h2o for a fountain, is the largest example, at three feet tall in bronze, and probably only survives because it was taken as booty past the metropolis of Pisa in the Centre Ages.^[16] Similar the famous lions supporting a fountain in the Alhambra, it probably came from Al-Andalus. The griffin and lions cannot easily be regarded as potential idols, given their submissive position (and the lack of religions worshipping lions or griffins), and the same is true of pocket-size decorative figures in relief on objects in metalwork, or figures painted on Islamic pottery, both of which are relatively common.^[17] In item hunting scenes of humans and animals were popular, and presumably regarded every bit clearly having no religious function. The figures in miniatures were, until the tardily 16th century, always numerous in each image, modest (typically only an inch or two loftier), and showing the central figures at roughly the aforementioned size as the attendants and servants who are unremarkably as well shown, thus deflecting potential accusations of idolatry. The books illustrated were most often the classics of Farsi poetry and historical chronicles.

The hadith show some concessions for context, every bit with the dolls, and condemn most strongly the makers rather than the owners of images.^[18] A long tradition of prefaces to muraqqas sought to justify the cosmos of images without getting involved in discussions of the specific texts, using arguments such every bit comparison God to an creative person.^[19]

Miniature painting was more often than not patronized past the court circle and is a private form of fine art; the owner chooses whom to show a book or muraqqa (anthology). But wall-paintings with large figures were found in early Islam, and in Safavid and later Persia, especially from the 17th century, but were ever rare in the Arabic-speaking world. Such paintings are besides mainly found in private palaces; examples in public buildings are rare though not unknown, in Iran there are even some in mosques.

Eschewing figural representation, ornamentation in Islamic sacred architecture relies importantly on arabesque and geometrical patterns.

Early examples of not-figural representation in Islamic sacred architecture are found in the Umayyad Mosque of Damascus and the Dome of the Rock. The murals of the Dome of the Rock apply crowns and jewels to symbolize earthly rulership and "otherworldly" plants every bit an invocation of the Quranic clarification of heaven.^[20] Similarly, the murals in the Umayyad Mosque of Damascus, which depict an idyllic cityscape are besides meant to be an evocation of paradise without figural representation.^[xx]

The issue of aniconism has posed problems in the modernistic world, especially as technologies like tv set adult in the 20th century. For many years, Wahhabi clerics opposed the establishment of a idiot box service in Saudi Arabia, as they believed it immoral to produce images of humans.^[21] The introduction of television in 1965 offended some Saudis, and one of King Faisal'south nephews, Prince Khalid ibn Musa'id ibn 'Abd al-'Aziz,^[22] was killed in a police shootout in August 1965 later he led an assault on one of the new television receiver stations.^[23]

Present [edit]

Depending on which segment of Islamic societies are referred to, the application of aniconism is characterized by noteworthy differences.^[24] Factors are the epoch considered, the country, the religious orientation, the political intent, the popular beliefs, the private benefit or the dichotomy between reality and soapbox.

Today, the concept of an aniconic Islam coexists with a daily life for Muslims awash with images. Tv set stations and newspapers (which do present still and moving representations of living beings) have an exceptional impact on public opinion, sometimes, as in the instance of Al Jazeera, with a global reach, across the Arabic speaking and Muslim audience. Portraits of secular and religious leaders are omnipresent on banknotes^{[25] [26]} and coins, in streets and offices (e.g. presidents like Nasser and Mubarak, Arafat, al-Assad or Hezbollah's Nasrallah and Ayatollah Khomeini). Anthropomorphic statues in public places are to exist found in most Muslim countries (Saddam Hussein'southward are infamous^[27]), besides as art schools training sculptors and painters. In the Egyptian countryside, it is fashionable to gloat and annunciate the returning of pilgrims from Mecca on the walls of their houses.

The Taliban movement in Afghanistan banned photography and destroyed non-Muslim artifacts, especially carvings and statues such as the Buddhas of Bamiyan, more often than not tolerated past other Muslims, on the grounds that the artifacts are idolatrous or shirk. Nevertheless, sometimes those who profess aniconism volition practice figurative representation (cf. portraits of Talibans from the Kandahar photographic studios during their imposed ban on photography^[28]).

For Shia communities, portraits of the major figures of Shiite history are important elements of religious devotion. In Islamic republic of iran, portraits of Muhammad and of Ali, printed on pieces of cloth or woven into carpets, are called temsal ("likenesses") and can be bought around shrines and in the streets, to be hung in homes or carried with oneself.^[29] In Islamic republic of pakistan, Republic of india and Bangladesh portraits of Ali can be establish on notoriously ornate trucks,^[30] buses and rickshaws.^[31] Opposite to the Sunni tradition, a photographic film of the deceased can be placed on the Shiite tombs.^{[32] [33]} A marvel in Iran is an Orientalist photography supposed to represent Muhammad as a young boy.^[34] The Grand Ayatollah Sistani of Najaf in Republic of iraq has given a fatwā declaring the delineation of Muhammad, the prophets and other holy characters, permissible if it is made with the utmost respect.^[35]

Circumvention methods [edit]

Medieval Muslim artists found various ways to represent particularly sensitive figures such as Muhammad. He is sometimes shown with a fiery halo hiding his face, caput, or whole body, and from about 1500 is oft shown with a veiled face.^[36] Members of his firsthand family and other prophets may be treated in the same mode. At the material level, prophets in manuscripts can have their face covered by a veil or all humans have a stroke drawn over their neck, symbolizing the severing of the soul, and clarifying the fact that it is non something alive and imbued with a soul that is depicted: a purposeful flaw to make what is depicted incommunicable to live in reality (every bit just impossible in reality is however often frowned upon or banned, such every bit representations of comic book characters or unicorns, although exceptions do exist). Few portraits were attempted, and the ability to create recognizable portraits was rare in Islamic fine art until the Mughal tradition began in the late 15th century, although in both Mughal India and Ottoman Turkey portraits of the ruler then became very pop in court circles.^[37]

Islamic calligraphy has too displayed figurative themes. Examples of this are  anthropomorphic and zoomorphic calligrams.^[38] Islamic calligraphy forms evolved, particularly in the Ottoman period, to fulfill a part similar to figurative art.^[39] When on paper, Islamic calligraphy is often seen with elaborate frames of Ottoman illumination.^[39] Examples of Islamic calligraphy using this technique include the proper noun of Muhammad, the Hilya (a tablet that embodies the description of Muhammad's physical advent), multiple names of God in Islam, and the tughra (a calligraphic version of the proper noun of an Ottoman sultan).^{[forty] [41]}

Causes [edit]

Hadith and exegesis examples [edit]

During its early days, aniconism in Islam was intended as a measure against idolatry, particularly confronting the statues worshipped by pagans. All hadith presented in this department are Sunni, non Shia.

Narrated Aisha:
The wife of the Prophet purchased a cushion with pictures of animals on information technology for the Prophet to sit down on and recline on. The Prophet disapproved of the making of such pictures, saying the makers would be punished on the Twenty-four hour period of Resurrection when God would enquire them to bring their creations to life. The Hadith also reports that the Prophet said that the angels would not enter a house where there are pictures.

Narrated Aisha, Ummul Mu'minin:
Upon the Prophet's arrival from a military trek, a curtain covering Aisha'south store-room was raised by the blowing wind, uncovering her dolls. Amongst them, the Prophet saw a horse with 2 wings made of rags and asked his married woman what was on the horse. Aisha responded that it was 2 wings. He asked: A equus caballus with two wings? Aisha and so asked if the Prophet had not heard that Solomon had horses with wings. The Hadith reports that the Prophet laughed heartily where his tooth teeth were seen.

—Abu Dawood, Sunan Abu Dawood ^[43],
Reference (English Book) Volume 42, Hadith 4914
Reference (Standard arabic Book) Volume 43, Hadith 160

Narrated Ali ibn Abu Talib:
Safinah AbuAbdurRahman, Ali ibn Abu Talib, and Fatimah invited the Prophet to consume with them. Upon the Prophet'south arrival, he turned away afterwards seeing figural curtains hanging at the end of the firm. Ali followed the Prophet to ask what had turned him back. The Prophet stated that it is unfitting for him or any Prophet to enter a home decorated [with figural imagery].

—Abu Dawood, Sunan Abu Dawood ^[44],
Reference (English Book) Book 27, Hadith 3746
Reference (Arabic Volume) Book 28, Hadith 20

Narrated 'Aisha:
Upon the arrival of the Prophet from a journey, he saw and tore a curtain with pictures his wife had placed over the door of a bedchamber. The Prophet disapproved of the making of such pictures, saying those who try to make the like of Allah's creations will receive the severest penalty on the Day of Resurrection.

—Muhammad al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari ^[45],
Reference (English Book) Vol. 7, Book 72, Hadith 838
Reference (Arabic Book) Book 77, Hadith 6019

To show the superiority of the monotheist religion, Muhammad smashed the idols at the Kaaba. He also removed paintings that were blasphemous to Islam, while protecting others (the images of Mary and Jesus) inside the edifice.^[46] The hadith below emphasizes that aniconism depends not but on what, but also on how things are depicted.

Narrated Ibn Abbas:
The Prophet refused to enter the Ka'ba with idols in information technology and ordered they be removed. Pictures of Abraham and Ishmael holding arrows of divination were carried out and the Prophet stated, "May Allah ruin the infidels for the simulated portrayal of the acts of Abraham and Ishmael. The Hadith reports that the Prophet said "Allahu Akbar" inside all directions of the Ka'ba and left without prayer therein.

—Muhammad al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari ^[47],
Reference (English Book) Vol. v, Book 59, Hadith 584
Reference (Arabic Book) Book 64, Hadith 4333

Muslim b. Subaih reported beingness in a firm with Masriuq which had portrayals of Mary. Masriuq had heard Abdullah b, Mas'ud stating that the Prophet had said the virtually grievously tormented people on the Day of Resurrection would be the painters of pictures. After this message was read before Nasr b. 'Ali al-Jahdhami and other narrators, the last ane existence Ibn Sa'id b Abl at Hasan, one person asked for a religious verdict for one like himself who paints pictures. Ibn 'Abbas narrated to the person the Prophet's sayings in which all painters who make pictures would exist punished in the fire of Hell and the soul will be breathed in every picture prepared by him. Just pictures of paintings of trees and lifeless things should be allowed.

Although pagans in Muhammad'southward times likewise worshiped trees and stones, Muhammad opposed only images of animated beings — humans and animals —, as reported past the hadith. Later on, geometrical decoration became a sophisticated art form in Islam.

Narrated Said bin Abu Al-Hasan:
Said bin Abu Al-Hasan narrates a conversation between a panicked human being who makes his living past making pictures with Ibn 'Abbas. Ibn 'Abbas relays the message heard from the Prophet that whoever makes a picture will be endlessly punished by Allah until he is able to put life into information technology - though he declared that would never be possible. The Hadith reports Ibn 'Abbas further advised the panicked homo to make pictures of copse and whatever other inanimate objects.

—Muhammad al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari ^[49],
Reference (English Book) Vol. 3, Book 34, Hadith 428
Reference (Arabic Book) Book 34, Hadith 172

A'isha reported: The Prophet'south wife describes owning a pall with bird portraits. The Prophet asked for the curtain to be changed, for when he entered the room it brought to him pleasures of worldly life. Aisha describes also having worn sheets with silk badges, which the Prophet did non command to be torn.

—Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj, Sahih Muslim ^[50],
Reference (English Book) Book 24, Hadith 5255
Reference (Arabic Book) Book 38, Hadith 5643

Aisha describes the Prophet tearing a mantle with portraits on information technology as soon as he saw it. The Hadith reports that the Prophet said the well-nigh grievous torment from the Mitt of Allah on the Solar day of Resurrection would be for those who imitate (Allah) in the act of His creation. The torn pieces were made into cushions.

—Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj, Sahih Muslim ^[51],
Reference (English Book) Book 24, Hadith 5261
Reference (Arabic Book) Book 38, Hadith 5650

Muhammad also warned his followers of dying amid people that congenital places of worship at graves and placed pictures in it (i.eastward. Christians).

Narrated 'Aisha:
When the Prophet became ill, amongst his wives at that place was talk of a church building in Federal democratic republic of ethiopia with descriptions of its dazzler and pictures it independent. The Hadith reports the Prophet maxim the creators are the worst creatures in the sight of Allah for they are the people who, upon the death of a pious human amongst them, brand a place of worship at his grave and create pictures in it.

—Muhammad al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari ^[52],
Reference (English language Volume) Vol. 2, Volume 23, Hadith 425
Reference (Arabic Book) Book 23, Hadith 425

Muhammad made information technology very clear that angels do not like pictures.

Narrated Abu Talha:
The Prophet said that the angels practice not enter houses where at that place are pictures. The sub-narrator Busr describes having visited Zaid who became sick, so witnessing a curtain hung at his door with a motion picture on it that he had spoken nearly ii days prior to becoming ill.

—Muhammad al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari ^[53],
Reference (English Volume) Vol. 7, Book 72, Hadith 841
Reference (Arabic Book) Book 77, Hadith 6023

Narrated Salim's father:
Upon Gabriel's delay to visit the Prophet, he stated that they do not enter a place in which there is a picture or a dog

—Muhammad al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari ^[54],
Reference (English language Book) Vol. 7, Volume 72, Hadith 843
Reference (Standard arabic Book) Book 77, Hadith 6026

Run into too [edit]

• Aniconism in Christianity
• Aniconism in Judaism
• Taghut
• Censorship past religion
• Censorship in Islamic societies
• Devastation of early on Islamic heritage sites in Saudi arabia
• Devastation of cultural heritage past ISIL
• Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy
• Yazid II, an Umayyad caliph who issued an iconoclastic edict in 721 CE
• Criticism of Twelver Shia Islam#Image veneration

Notes [edit]

1. ^ ^{a b} Esposito, John L. (2011). What Anybody Needs to Know about Islam (2nd ed.). Oxford University Printing. pp. 14–xv.
2. ^ ^{a b} "Figural Representation in Islamic Art". The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
3. ^ Wolfram Drews (2011). "Jewish or Islamic Influence? The Iconoclastic Controversy Dispute". Cultural Transfers in Dispute. Representations in Asia, Europe and the Arab World since the Middle Ages. Deutschland: Campus Verlag. p. 42.
4. ^ Wolfram Drews (2011). "Jewish or Islamic Influence? The Iconoclastic Controversy Dispute". Cultural Transfers in Dispute. Representations in Asia, Europe and the Arab World since the Middle Ages. Deutschland: Campus Verlag. pp. 55–threescore.
5. ^ Esposito, John L. (2011). What Everyone Needs to Know well-nigh Islam. Oxford University Printing. pp. 14–15. ISBN9780199794133.
6. ^ Quran 5:87–92, 21:51–52
7. ^ Titus Burckhardt (ane October 1987). Mirror of the intellect: essays on traditional scientific discipline & sacred art. SUNY Press. p. 223. ISBN978-0-88706-684-ix . Retrieved 12 Dec 2011.
8. ^ Gruber, Christiane J., 1976-. The Praiseworthy Ane : the Prophet Muhammad in Islamic texts and images. Bloomington, Indiana, USA. ISBN 978-0-253-02526-5. OCLC 1083783078.
9. ^ Allen, Terry, "Aniconism and Figural Representation in Islamic Fine art", Palm Tree BooksArchived March three, 2016, at the Wayback Machine
10. ^ Educational Site: Archaeological Sites: Qusayr `Amra Archived 2016-08-26 at the Wayback Machine
11. ^ Hoffman, Eva R. (2008-03-22). "Between Eastward and West: The Wall Paintings of Samarra and the Construction of Abbasid Princely Culture". Muqarnas Online. 25 (1): 107–132. doi:10.1163/22118993_02501005. ISSN 0732-2992.
12. ^ Reza Abbasi Museum Archived September 27, 2016, at the Wayback Machine
13. ^ "Portraits of the Sultans," Topkapi Palace Museum Archived Nov xx, 2008, at the Wayback Auto
14. ^ Dickson, Martin (1958). Sháh Tahmásb and the Úzbeks (the duel for Khurásán with ʻUbayd Khán; 930-946/1524-1540). Ph.D. dissertation, Princeton University. p. 190.
15. ^ Canby, Sheila R, Deniz Beyazit, Martina Rugiadi, A. C. Due south Peacock, and North.Y.) Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York. Court and Creation: The Not bad Age of the Seljuqs, 2016, p. twoscore-47
16. ^ Mack, p. 3 Archived June 10, 2016, at the Wayback Machine
17. ^ Canby, Sheila R, Deniz Beyazit, Martina Rugiadi, A. C. S Peacock, and N.Y.) Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York. Courtroom and Cosmos: The Smashing Age of the Seljuqs, 2016, p. 121
18. ^ The epitome debate : figural representation in Islam and across the globe. Gruber, Christiane J., 1976-. London. ISBN 978-i-909942-34-ix. OCLC 1061820255.
19. ^ Roxburgh, David J. Prefacing the Image: The Writing of Art History in Sixteenth-Century Islamic republic of iran. Studies and Sources in Islamic Art and Architecture, v. 9. Leiden ; Brill, 2001.
20. ^ ^{a b} George, Alain. Paradise or Empire?: On a Paradox of Umayyad Art. Ability, Patronage, and Retentivity in Early Islam (2018). Oxford University Press.
21. ^ Boyd, Douglas A. (Winter 1970–71). "Saudi Arabian Tv". Journal of Broadcasting. fifteen (1).
22. ^ R. Hrair Dekmejian (1995). Islam in Revolution: Fundamentalism in the Arab World. Syracuse University Press. p. 133. ISBN 978-0-8156-2635-0. Retrieved 2013-02-13.
23. ^ "Saudi Fourth dimension Bomb?". Frontline PBS.
24. ^ See 'Sura' and 'Taswir' in Encyclopaedia of Islam
25. ^ Petroleum-related banknotes: Saudi arabia: Oil Refinery Archived July 20, 2011, at the Wayback Car
26. ^ Petroleum-related banknotes: Islamic republic of iran: Abadan Refinery, Iahanshahi-Amouzegar Archived July xx, 2011, at the Wayback Motorcar
27. ^ David Zucchino "U.Due south. military, not Iraqis, behind toppling of statue" Honolulu Advertiser, July 5, 2004 Archived March 3, 2016, at the Wayback Machine
28. ^ Jon Lee Anderson, Thomas Dworzak, Taliban, London (UK), Trolley, 2003, ISBN 0-9542648-v-1.
29. ^ Dabashi, Hamid (2011). Shi'ism - A Religion of Protest. Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard Academy Printing. pp. 29–30.
30. ^ Saudi Aramco World : Masterpieces to Go: The Trucks of Pakistan Archived October 8, 2014, at the Wayback Motorcar
31. ^ The Rickshaw Arts of Bangladesh Archived October 21, 2009, at the Wayback Motorcar
32. ^ Picture show of Golestan due east Shohoda cemetery Esfahan -Esfahan, Iran Archived October xviii, 2012, at the Wayback Motorcar
33. ^ Mashad Martyrs Cemetery at All-time Iran Travel.com Archived April seven, 2015, at the Wayback Machine
34. ^ Photography by Lehnert & Landrock, titled "Mohamed", Tunis, c. 1906. Nicole Canet, Lehnert & Landrock. Photographies orientatlistes 1905-1930. (Paris: Galerie Au Bonheur du Jour, 2004): comprehend, p. 9. dead link Archived May eighteen, 2006, at the Wayback Auto . Historical context described in (in French) Patricia Briel, letemps.ch, 22 February 2006. Ces étranges portraits de Mahomet jeune ^{[ dead link ]}
35. ^ Grand Ayatollah Uzma Sistani, Fiqh & Behavior: Istifa answers, personal website. (accessed 17 February 2006) (in Standard arabic) ^{[ permanent dead link ]} , "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2009-05-23. Retrieved 2009-04-29 . {{cite spider web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
36. ^ Gruber, Christiane. "Between LOGOS ( KALIMA ) AND LIGHT ( NŪR ): REPRESENTATIONS OF THE PROPHET MUHAMMAD IN ISLAMIC PAINTING." Muqarnas, vol. 26, 2009, pp. 229–262. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/27811142. Accessed 12 November. 2020.
37. ^ Fetvacı, Emine. Picturing History at the Ottoman Court / Emine Fetvacı. Indiana Academy Press, 2014. p.254
38. ^ Robinson, Francis. Journal of Islamic Studies, vol. three, no. 1, 1992, pp. 100–103. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/26196535. Accessed xiii Nov. 2020.
39. ^ ^{a b} FETVACI, EMINE. "THE ALBUM OF AHMED I." Ars Orientalis, vol. 42, 2012, pp. 127–138. JSTOR, world wide web.jstor.org/stable/43489770. Accessed thirteen Nov. 2020
40. ^ The Metropolitan Museum of Art. "Hilya (Votive Tablet)." Accessed December 9, 2020. https://www.metmuseum.org/art/drove/search/447313.
41. ^ Grabar, Oleg. "An Exhibition of High Ottoman Art." Muqarnas, vol. half dozen, 1989, pp. 1–xi. JSTOR, world wide web.jstor.org/stable/1602275. Accessed 13 Nov. 2020.
42. ^ Sahih al-Bukhari, three:34:318, 7:62:110
43. ^ Sunan Abu Dawood, 41:4914
44. ^ Sunan Abu Dawood, 27:3746
45. ^ Sahih al-Bukhari, 7:72:838
46. ^ Guillaume, Alfred (1955). The Life of Muhammad. A translation of Ishaq's "Sirat Rasul Allah". Oxford University Press. p. 552. ISBN978-0-19-636033-one . Retrieved 2011-12-08 .
47. ^ Sahih al-Bukhari, 5:59:584
48. ^ Sahih Muslim, 24:5272
49. ^ Sahih al-Bukhari, 3:34:428
50. ^ Sahih Muslim, 24:5255
51. ^ Sahih Muslim, 24:5261
52. ^ Sahih al-Bukhari, ii:23:425
53. ^ Sahih al-Bukhari, 7:72:841
54. ^ Sahih al-Bukhari, 7:72:843

References [edit]

Full general [edit]

• Jack Goody, Representations and Contradictions: Ambivalence Towards Images, Theatre, Fiction, Relics and Sexuality, London, Blackwell Publishers, 1997. ISBN 0-631-20526-eight.

Islam [edit]

• Oleg Grabar, "Postscriptum", The Formation of Islamic Art, Yale University, 1987 (p209). ISBN 0-300-03969-7
• Terry Allen, "Aniconism and Figural Representation in Islamic Fine art", V Essays on Islamic Art, Occidental (CA), Solipsist, 1988. ISBN 0-944940-00-v [1]
• Gilbert Beaugé & Jean-François Clément, L'paradigm dans le monde arabe [The image in the Arab world], Paris, CNRS Éditions, 1995, ISBN ii-271-05305-six (in French)
• Rudi Paret, Das islamische Bilderverbot und die Schia [The Islamic prohibition of images and the Shi'a], Erwin Gräf (ed.), Festschrift Werner Caskel, Leiden, 1968, 224-32. (in German language)

stewartsompter.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aniconism_in_Islam